When Will Mount Pelee Erupt Again

Mountain Pelée
Highest point
Elevation	i,397 g (4,583 ft)[1]
Prominence	one,397 1000 (four,583 ft)
Coordinates	Lua fault in Module:Coordinates at line 668: callParserFunction: office "#coordinates" was non found.
Geography
Mountain Pelee Martinique
Geology
Mount blazon	Stratovolcano
Volcanic arc/belt	Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc
Last eruption	1929–1932 [1]
Climbing
Easiest route	walk

Mount Pelée (; French: Montagne Pelée "Bald Mountain") is a semi-agile volcano at the northern end of Martinique, an island and French overseas department in the Lesser Antilles island arc of the Caribbean area. Its volcanic cone is composed of layers of volcanic ash and hardened lava.^[2] The volcano is currently in a quiescent state, which means information technology is non active, but is registering seismic activity.^[3]

The stratovolcano is famous for its eruption in 1902 and the destruction that resulted, dubbed the worst volcanic disaster of the 20th century.^{[4] [5] [6]} The eruption killed about 30,000 people.^{[7] [eight]} Most deaths were acquired by pyroclastic flows and occurred in the city of Saint-Pierre, which was, at that time, the largest city on the island.^{[nine] [ten]}

Pyroclastic flows completely destroyed St. Pierre, a town of 30,000 people, inside minutes of the eruption.^[11] The eruption left only two survivors in the straight path of the flows: Louis-Auguste Cyparis survived because he was in a poorly ventilated, dungeon-like jail prison cell; Léon Compère-Léandre, living on the border of the city, escaped with severe burns.^[12] Havivra Da Ifrile, a immature daughter, reportedly escaped with injuries during the eruption by taking a small boat to a cave down shore, and was later plant adrift two miles (3 km) from the island, unconscious. The event marked the only major volcanic disaster in the history of France and its overseas territories.

Contents

• 1 Geographical setting and description
• 2 Geological history
• 3 1902 eruption
  • 3.1 The main eruption
  • 3.2 Relief
  • 3.3 Subsequent action
  • iii.iv Volcanic spine
• four Electric current status
• 5 Biological science
• half dozen In literature
• vii See also
• viii References
• 9 External links

Geographical setting and description

Mount Pelée is the result of a typical subduction zone. The subduction formed the Lesser Antilles island arc, a curved chain of volcanoes approximately 850 kilometres (530 mi) in length, between Puerto Rico and Venezuela, where the Caribbean Plate meets Atlantic Oceanic chaff belonging to the South American Plate. Other volcanoes in the island arc are also known for their volcanic activity, including Saint Vincent'due south La Soufrière, Guadeloupe's La Grande Soufriere volcano, Montserrat's Soufrière Hills, and the submarine volcano Kicking 'em Jenny.^[2]

Geological history

Volcanologists have identified three different phases in the development of mount Pelée volcano: initial, intermediate, and mod.^[2] In an initial phase, called the "Paléo-Pelée" phase, Mountain Pelee was a common stratovolcano. The cone of Paléo-Pelée was composed of many layers of lava flows and fragmented volcanic debris. Remains of the Paléo-Pelée cone are nonetheless visible at the northern view at the volcano today.

A second stage, at present called the intermediate phase, started around 100,000 years agone, later a long menstruation of quiescence. This stage is grouped by the formation of the Morne Macouba lava dome, so subsequently on, the Morne Macouba caldera. During the intermediate phase, there were several eruptions which produced pyroclastic flows like those that destroyed Saint-Pierre in the 1902 eruption. Effectually 25,000 years ago, a large southwest sector collapse occurred, forming a landslide. This event is similar to the eruption of Mount Saint Helens in 1980.^[two]

The modernistic stage of the evolution of Mountain Pelée has created most of the current cone, with deposits of pumice and the results of past pyroclastic flows. More than 30 eruptions accept been identified during the concluding 5,000 years of the volcano's activity.

3,000 years ago, post-obit a large pumice eruption, the Étang Sec (French for Dry Pond) caldera was then formed. The 1902 eruption took identify within the Étang Sec crater. This eruption formed many pyroclastic flows and produced a dome which filled the caldera.

The post-obit eruption in 1929 formed a 2nd dome in the Étang Sec caldera, and produced pyroclastic flows emptying into the Blanche River valley. This concluding eruption is mainly responsible for the current state of Mount Pelée.^[2]

1902 eruption

A map of the afflicted area around Mount Pelée printed in 1904.

Earlier the tragic 1902 eruption, every bit early as the summer of 1900, signs of increased fumarole action were present in the Étang Sec (Dry Pond) crater nigh the superlative.^[thirteen] Relatively minor phreatic (steam) eruptions that occurred in 1792 and 1851 were prove that the volcano was agile and potentially unsafe. Local natives, the Carib people, knew it as "fire mountain" from previous eruptions in ancient times.

Mount Pelée began its eruptions on April 23, 1902. In early April, excursionists noted the appearance of sulfurous vapors emitting from fumaroles near the mountaintop. This was not regarded as important, as fumaroles had appeared and disappeared in the by.

On April 23, the mountain acquired a light rain of cinders on its southern and western side, together with abrupt underground shocks.

On April 25, the mountain emitted a big deject containing rocks and ashes from its top, where the Étang Sec caldera was located. The ejected textile did not cause a significant amount of damage.

On April 26, the expanse was dusted by volcanic ash from an eruption; the public authorities however did non see a reason to worry.

On April 27, several excursionists climbed the mountaintop to find Étang Sec filled with h2o, forming a lake 180 thou (590 ft) across. At that place was a 15 m (50 ft) high cone of volcanic debris congenital up on one side, feeding the lake with a steady stream of boiling water. Sounds resembling a cauldron with boiling water were heard from deep underground. The strong aroma of sulfur was all over the city, six.4 km (4.0 mi) away from the volcano, causing discomfort to people and horses.

On April thirty, Rivière des Pères and the river Roxelane swelled, carrying boulders and trees from the mountaintop. The villages of Prêcheur and Sainte-Philomène received a steady stream of ash.

At xi:thirty p.one thousand. on May ii, the mount produced loud explosions, earthquakes, and a massive pillar of dense black smoke. Ashes and fine-grained pumice covered the unabridged northern half of the island. The detonation continued in 5-half-dozen hr intervals. This led the local newspaper Les Colonies to indefinitely postpone the proposed picnic on the mountain, originally planned for May four. Farm animals started dying from hunger and thirst, as their sources of water and food were contaminated with ash.

On Sat, May iii, the wind blew the ash deject northwards, alleviating the situation in Saint-Pierre. The side by side day the ash fall intensified, and the communication betwixt Saint-Pierre and the Prêcheur commune was severed. The ash cloud was and so dense that the coastal boats feared to navigate through it. Many citizens decided to abscond the urban center, filling the steamer lines to capacity. The expanse was covered with a layer of fine, flour-like white ash.

On Monday, May 5, the mountain apparently calmed down somewhat; all the same, at about 1 PM, the body of water suddenly receded nearly 100 metres (330 ft) and and so rushed back, flooding parts of the urban center, and a large deject of smoke appeared westwards of the mountain. One wall of the Étang Sec crater collapsed and propelled a mass of boiling h2o and mud, or lahar, into Blanche River, flooded the Guérin sugar works and buried virtually 150 victims under sixty metres (200 ft) to 90 metres (300 ft) of mud. Refugees from other areas rushed into Saint-Pierre. That night, the atmospheric disturbances disabled the electrical grid, sank the urban center into darkness and added to the confusion.

The side by side day, at about 2 AM, loud sounds were heard from within the depth of the mount.

On Wednesday, May 7, at around 4 AM, the mountain stepped up its activity; the clouds of ash caused numerous bolts of volcanic lightning around the mountaintop, and both the craters glowed reddish orange into the night. Through the day, people were leaving the city, but more than people from the countryside were attempting to detect refuge in the metropolis, increasing its population past several thousand. The newspapers nevertheless claimed the city was rubber. News of the volcano Soufrière erupting on the nearby Saint Vincent isle reassured the people that the internal pressures in the mountain were being relieved. Not anybody was reassured. Captain Marina Leboffe, of the barque Orsolina, left the harbor with only one-half of the sugar cargo loaded, despite shippers' protests, clearance refused by the port authorities, and threats of beingness arrested, as were many other civilians refused permission to exit town.^[12] Governor Louis Mouttet and his wife stayed in the city. By the evening, the mountain'south tremors seemed to at-home down again.

Saint Pierre earlier the eruption

Evacuees on Rue du Pavé, Fort-de-France after 1902 eruption, photographed past William H. Rau

The principal eruption

On May 8, 1902, Ascension Twenty-four hour period, a volcanic eruption destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre, about half-dozen.4 kilometres (4.0 mi) southward of the summit.

In the morning, people were observing the fireworks the mount was displaying. The nighttime shift telegraph operator was sending the reports of the volcano's activeness to the operator at Fort-de-France, claiming no meaning new developments; his last transmission was at 7:52 was "Allez", handing over the line to the remote operator.^[14] In the next 2nd, the telegraph line went dead. A cablevision repair ship had the metropolis in directly view; the upper mountainside ripped open and a dense blackness cloud shot out horizontally.^[12] A second black cloud rolled upwards, forming a gigantic mushroom cloud and darkening the sky in a 50-mile (80 km) radius. The initial speed of both clouds was later calculated to be over 670 kilometres (420 mi) per 60 minutes. The horizontal pyroclastic surge hugged the footing and sped down towards the city of Saint-Pierre, appeared black and heavy, glowing hot from the inside. It consisted of superheated steam and volcanic gases and grit, with temperatures exceeding 1,075 °C (1,967 °F). In under a infinitesimal it reached and covered the unabridged city, instantly igniting everything combustible with which it came in contact.

A rush of wind followed, this time towards the mountain. And so came a one-half-hour downpour of muddy rain mixed with ashes. For the next several hours, all communication with the city was severed. Nobody knew what was happening, nor who had authority over the island, as the governor was unreachable and his condition unknown.

There are unnamed eyewitnesses to the eruption, probably survivors on the boats at the time of the eruption. One eyewitness said "the mountain was diddled to pieces, there was no alert," while some other said "information technology was like a giant oil refinery." Ane person fifty-fifty went as far to say that "the boondocks vanished before our eyes."^[15]

The area devastated by the pyroclastic deject covered about 8 square miles (21 km²), with the city of Saint-Pierre taking the brunt of the damage.

At the time of the eruption, Saint-Pierre had a population of about 28,000, which had swollen with refugees from the pocket-sized explosions and mud flows first emitted past the volcano. Fable has previously reported that out of the 30,000 in the metropolis, at that place were only two survivors: Louis-Auguste Cyparis, a felon held in an cloak-and-dagger jail cell in the town's jail for wounding a friend with a cutlass, and Léon Compère-Léandre, a human being who lived at the edge of the city.^[12] In reality, at that place were a number of survivors who made their style out of the fringes of the smash zone. Many of these survivors were horribly burned, and some died afterwards from their injuries. A number made their fashion to Le Carbet, only south of St. Pierre backside a ridge that protected that boondocks from the worst of the pyroclastic flow; survivors were rescued on the embankment there by Martinique officials.^[xvi]

Compère-Léandre stated the following when asked about his survival:

I felt a terrible wind blowing, the earth began to tremble, and the sky suddenly became nighttime. I turned to go into the house, with peachy difficulty climbed the three or iv steps that separated me from my room, and felt my arms and legs burning, also my body. I dropped upon a tabular array. At this moment four others sought refuge in my room, crying and writhing with pain, although their garments showed no sign of having been touched by flame. At the end of x minutes 1 of these, the young Delavaud girl, aged nigh 10 years, brutal dead; the others left. I got up and went to some other room, where I establish the begetter Delavaud, still clothed and lying on the bed, expressionless. He was purple and inflated, merely the habiliment was intact. Crazed and nigh overcome, I threw myself on a bed, inert and awaiting decease. My senses returned to me in perhaps an hr, when I beheld the roof called-for. With sufficient strength left, my legs bleeding and covered with burns, I ran to Fonds-Saint-Denis, half dozen kilometers from Saint-Pierre.^[12]

One woman, a housemaid, too survived the pyroclastic flow only perished presently later on. She said that the merely thing she remembered from the event was sudden heat. She died very soon after being discovered. A third reported survivor was Havivra Da Ifrile, a 10-year-one-time girl who had rowed to shelter in a cave. Included amongst the victims were the passengers and crews of several ships docked at Saint-Pierre.

One passenger steamship, the Roraima, which went missing on April 26, was believed to accept been engulfed by ash from a preliminary explosion. Even so, it reached the port of Saint-Pierre at half-dozen:30 AM, shortly before the eruption, and was set aglow by the pyroclastic menstruation. It later sank; its wreck is even so nowadays offshore of Saint-Pierre. Twenty-eight of her crew, and all the passengers except two (a little daughter and her creole nurse), were killed past the cloud.^[12]

Relief

At about 12:00 noon the acting governor of Martinique sent the warship Suchet to investigate what had happened and the warship arrived off the called-for town at almost 12.30 p.grand. The trigger-happy heat beat dorsum landing parties until nearly 3 p.m., when the captain came ashore on the Identify Bertin, the tree-shaded square with cafés near the center of boondocks. Not a tree was standing; the denuded trunks, scorched and bare, lay decumbent, torn out by the roots. The footing was littered with dead. Fire and a suffocating stench prevented any deeper exploration of the burning ruins.

Meanwhile, a number of survivors had been plucked from the ocean past small boats; they were sailors who had been blown into the h2o by the touch on of the blast, and who had clung to wreckage for hours. All were badly burned. In the village of Carbet, shielded from the fiery cloud past a loftier promontory at the southern end of the city, were more victims, also horribly burned; few of these lived longer than a few hours.

The surface area of devastation covered virtually eight square miles. Inside this expanse, the annihilation of life and belongings was total; outside was a 2nd, clearly defined zone where there were casualties, but the fabric damage was less, while beyond this lay a strip in which vegetation was scorched but life was spared.

Many victims were in casual attitudes, their features calm and reposeful, indicating that death had overtaken them without warning and without hurting; others were contorted in ache. The clothing had been torn from nigh all the victims struck downwardly outdoors. Some houses were almost pulverized; it was impossible even for persons familiar with the city to identify the foundations of the urban center landmarks. The urban center burned for days. Sanitation parties penetrated the calcined ruins bit past bit, to dispose of the dead by burning; burial was out of the question. The stench was sickening. Thousands of victims lay under a shroud of ashes, heaped in windrows several feet deep, caked past the rains; many of these bodies were not retrieved for weeks, and few were identifiable.

The The states quickly offered help to Martinique government. On May 12, United states president Theodore Roosevelt instructed the Secretaries of War, Navy, and Treasury to starting time relief measures at once.^[17] U.S. cruiser Cincinnati, lying at Santo Domingo, and the Navy tug Potomac at San Juan, Puerto Rico, were ordered to keep to the disaster area every bit presently as possible. President Roosevelt asked Congress for an immediate cribbing of $500,000 for emergency assist to the victims of the calamity. The President said: "Ane of the greatest calamities in history has befallen our neighboring isle of Martinique ... The urban center of St. Pierre has ceased to exist ... The government of France ... informs us that Fort-de-French republic and the entire island of Martinique are still threatened. They therefore request that, for the purpose of rescuing the people who are in such mortiferous peril and threatened with starvation, the government of the United States may transport as soon equally possible the means of transporting them from the stricken island."

Congress voted for $200,000 of immediate assist and set hearings to determine what larger sum might be needed when the full nature of the disaster could exist learned. In an appeal for public funds the President empowered postmasters to receive donations for relief of the victims; a national committee of prominent citizens took charge of chartering supply ships. Canada, the UK, Germany, French republic, Italy, Denmark, Japan, Russia, and the Vatican as well offered aid.

Subsequent activity

Master Street, Le Morne-Rouge, afterward the August thirty eruption

On May 20, 1902, a second eruption equal to the first i in both type and force obliterated what was left of Saint-Pierre, killing 2000 rescuers, engineers, and mariners bringing supplies to the island.^[18] During a powerful eruption on August 30, 1902, a pyroclastic flow extended further east than the flows of eight and 20 May. Although not quite as powerful equally the previous two eruptions, the August 30 pyroclastic menstruum struck Morne Rouge (at least 800 fatalities),^[19] Ajoupa-Bouillon ^[20] (250 fatalities),^[19] and parts of Basse-Pointe (25 fatalities) and Morne-Capot (10 fatalities).^[19] A tsunami caused some harm in Carbet.^[20] To engagement, this was the final fatal eruption of Mount Pelée.^[19]

The written report of the causes of the disaster marked the commencement of mod volcanology with the definition and the analysis of the deadliest volcanic hazard: the pyroclastic flows and surges, also known equally nuées ardentes (Fr: burning clouds). The eruption also lent its name to the "Peléan eruption mode". Amid those who studied Mount Pelée were Angelo Heilprin and Antoine Lacroix. Lacroix was the first to describe the nuée ardente phenomenon.^[21]

The destruction caused past the 1902 eruption was chop-chop publicized by recent modern means of advice. It brought to the attending of the public and governments the hazards and dangers of an agile volcano.

Mount Pelée continued to erupt until July 4, 1905. Thereafter, the volcano took a rest and gave off no more than steam until 1929.^[22]

On September 16, 1929, Mount Pelée began to erupt once more. This time, there was no hesitation on the office of authorities and the danger area was immediately evacuated. Although there were pyroclastic flows, the activity was not as violent every bit the 1902 activity. Information technology culminated in another "spine" or lava plug, albeit smaller than the 1902 plug, being emplaced at the summit. The activity ended in belatedly 1932.^[23]

Volcanic spine

Beginning in October 1902, a dramatic volcanic spine grew from the crater floor in the Étang Sec crater, reaching a maximum width of about 100 to 150 m (300 to 500 ft) and a height of about 300 m (one,000 ft). Chosen the "Needle of Pelée" or "Pelée'south Tower", this extraordinary volcanic feature rose up to 15 m (50 ft) a day, and became twice the height of the Washington Monument and more or less the same book as the Not bad Pyramid of Egypt. It became unstable and collapsed into a pile of rubble in March 1903,^[24] subsequently 5 months of growth.

Current status

As of 2013^[update], the volcano currently lies quiescent to a higher place Saint-Pierre and Martinique. Before the 1902 eruption—as early equally the summertime of 1900—signs of increased fumarole activity were present in the Étang Sec crater (Scarth, p. 30). Relatively pocket-sized phreatic (steam) eruptions that occurred in 1792 and 1851 were evidence that the volcano was active. Signs of unrest volition well-nigh certainly precede whatever future eruptive action from Mountain Pelée, and its past activeness (including the violent eruptions uncovered by carbon dating) is an extremely important factor for chance assessment.^[25]

A few volcanic earthquakes occur on Martinique every year, just Mountain Pelée is under continuous scout by geophysicists and volcanologists (IPGP). As researcher Jean-Pierre Viode states, the volcanic observatory on Martinique would be able to observe activeness months before an actual eruption.^[26]

The city of Saint-Pierre was never fully rebuilt, though some villages grew up in its identify. The estimated population of Commune of Saint-Pierre in 2004 was 4,544.

Biology

The Martinique volcano frog, Allobates chalcopis, is endemic to Mount Pelée,^[27] and the but species among related frogs (family unit Aromobatidae) endemic to an oceanic island.^[28]

In literature

• Martinique Island by Rex Bestle. Volume based on the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelée, when information technology erupted on May 8, 1902 killing over xxx,000 people.
• The Day The Globe Ended by Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan Witts (Stein and Day, 1969, 306 pp). The authors used gimmicky records and survivor accounts to construct a historically authentic novel of the events and lives of residents of Martinique, leading up to and through the tragic eruption of May viii, 1902.
• Texaco by Patrick Chamoiseau (Gallimard, 1992. Trans. Rose-Myriam Réjouis and Val Vinokurov, Vintage International, 1998). In this novel that retraces several generations of Martinique's history, Esternome, the protagonist of the novel'due south first function, witnesses immediate the devastation acquired past the volcano. Marie-Sophie Laborieux, Esternome'due south daughter and the novel'due south narrator, recounts her begetter's experiences and also discusses the traces of this event she has seen herself, including fire scars on her father's body and ossuaries in the ruins of Saint-Pierre. The eruption and its aftermath are discussed in the section "Flirtation grillée" ("Barbecued Love").

Meet also

• List of volcanic eruptions past death toll
• List of volcanoes in Martinique
• Mount Pinatubo
• Mountain Vesuvius

References

1. ↑ ^{ane.0 i.1} "Pelée". Global Volcanism Programme. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-12-06 .<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
2. ↑ ^{ii.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4} "Mount Pelee". Mount-pelee.com.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
3. ↑ https://world wide web.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/stratoguide/glossary.html
4. ↑ [1]
5. ↑ Wright, Pierson (1992). USGS Round 1073. USGS. p. 39.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
6. ↑ Tilling (1985). Volcanoes. USGS. pp. 16–17.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
7. ↑ "USGS document of the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelee". USGS.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
8. ↑ Tilling (1985). Volcanoes. USGS.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
9. ↑ Blong, R.J. (1984). Volcanic Hazards: A Sourcebook on the Effects of Eruptions. Orlando, Florida: Bookish Press.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
10. ↑ Wright,Pierson (1992). Living With Volcanoes: USGS Round 1073. USGS.<templatestyles src="Module:Commendation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
11. ↑ Heilprin, Angelo (1903). Mont Pelee And The Tragedy Of Martinique. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company. Retrieved 2009-08-xv .<templatestyles src="Module:Commendation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
12. ↑ ^{12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.four 12.five} "The eruption of Mount Pelee". SDSU.<templatestyles src="Module:Commendation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
13. ↑ Scarth, Alwyn (2002). La Catastrophe. Oxford. p. 30.<templatestyles src="Module:Commendation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
14. ↑ Zebrowski Jr., Ernest; The Last Days of St. Pierre-The Volcanic Disaster that Claimed xxx,000 Lives; P. 128; Rutgers University Press: 2002
15. ↑ Staff. "Mt. Pelee". Windows to the universe.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
16. ↑ La Catastrophe; Alwyn Scarth; 2002: Oxford Press; pp 129-136
17. ↑ "Government Relief Work: How the War and Navy Departments Have Divided it--Merchant Vessels May Be Chartered". The New York Times. May 14, 1902.<templatestyles src="Module:Commendation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
18. ↑ http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/history-of-geology/2012/05/08/may-8-1902-la-pelee/
19. ↑ ^{19.0 nineteen.i 19.2 19.3} Scarth, Alwyn (2002). La Catastrophe. Oxford. pp. 212–218.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
20. ↑ ^{20.0 xx.i} Notes, Nature No.1714 Vol.66. 1902.<templatestyles src="Module:Commendation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
21. ↑ Scarth, Alwyn (2002). La Catastrophe. Oxford. p. 207.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
22. ↑ Scarth, Alwyn (2002). La Ending. Oxford. p. 221.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
23. ↑ Zebrowski Jr., Ernest; The Concluding Days of St. Pierre-The Volcanic Disaster that Claimed thirty,000 Lives; P. 268; Rutgers University Printing: 2002
24. ↑ Scarth, Alwyn (2002). La Catastrophe. Oxford. pp. 219–221.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
25. ↑ "Pelee: Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
26. ↑ http://www.geotimes.org/may02/geophen.html
27. ↑ Frost, Darrel R. (2014). "Allobates chalcopis (Kaiser, Coloma, and Greyness, 1994)". Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 23 September 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Commendation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
28. ↑ Fouquet, A.; Pineau, One thousand. V.; Rodrigues, M. T.; Mailles, J.; Schneider, J. B.; Ernst, R.; Dewynter, M. L. (2013). "Owned or exotic: The phylogenetic position of the Martinique Volcano Frog Allobates chalcopis (Anura: Dendrobatidae) sheds light on its origin and challenges current conservation strategies". Systematics and Biodiversity. 11: 87–101. doi:ten.1080/14772000.2013.764944.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [[commons: Script error: The function "getCommonsLink" does not exist. | Script fault: The role "getCommonsLink" does not exist. ]] .

• The eruption of Pelée : a summary and discussion of the phenomena and their sequels, Angelo Heilprin, Linpincott, 1908.
• Eruption of Mt. Pelée (1902)
• "A Pioneering Volcanologist Narrowly Beats the Reaper"
• La montagne Pelée
• Photos of Mt. Pelée volcanic rocks (with text in French) retrieved 2009-05-17
• "The Destruction in Martinique". The Earth's Work: A History of Our Fourth dimension. II: 2267–2268d. June 1902. Retrieved 2009-07-09 .<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
• LATELY THOMAS (August 1961). "PRELUDE to DOOMSDAY". American Heritage Magazine. 12 (5).<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
• Mt. Pelee volcano, St. Pierre, Martinique 61 digitized photographs from album that includes views of Martinique and destruction, dead, and rubble from the eruption of the Mt. Pelee volcano, May 1902. As well included are views of ships and the "Landing of the Refugees at St. Lucia." The album was published by W. G. Cooper, who operated a photography studio in Bridgetown, Barbados.

When Will Mount Pelee Erupt Again

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